A century of the Communist Party of India: Origins, debates, and early trajectories - 1

SA Dange 

By Harsh Thakor* 

The Communist Party of India (CPI) was founded in Kanpur on 26 December 1925. The year marks a century since an event that formally inaugurated the communist movement in India. The emergence of the CPI must be located within a period of profound social and political churn. India was still under British colonial rule, marked by widespread poverty, economic exploitation, and growing political mobilisation against imperial authority.

Almost simultaneously with, but independently of, the formation of a communist centre in Soviet Russia, the first communist groups began to take shape in India during 1921–22. These early formations emerged in different regions, reflecting diverse social contexts while drawing inspiration from Marxist ideas and the international revolutionary climate. In Bombay, a group formed around Sripad Amrit Dange, who published Gandhi vs. Lenin in mid-1921. Dange, then a student leader rusticated from Wilson College following participation in the Non-Cooperation Movement, articulated early debates within politicised student circles about the appropriate path to India’s emancipation. In Calcutta, Muzaffar Ahmad, along with poet Kazi Nazrul Islam, brought out the Bengali journal Navyug (New Age), blending militant nationalism with emerging socialist thought. In Madras, Singaravelu M. Chettiar, a Congress member active in labour work, embraced Marxism and went on to found the Labour Kisan Party of Hindustan in 1923. In Lahore, Ghulam Hussain, influenced by contacts associated with Indian communists abroad, worked among railway workers and edited the Urdu paper Inquilab.

The crystallisation of these groups was shaped by several historical factors: the tension between Gandhian political strategy and more radical approaches emphasising class struggle; the quantitative and qualitative growth of the Indian working-class movement; and the international impact of the October Revolution. During the Non-Cooperation–Khilafat period, differences became sharper, particularly around issues such as strikes and mass economic struggles. By the early 1920s, the working class had emerged as a significant component of the national movement, though without an independent political programme. Many early Marxists focused their efforts on organising workers, seeing them as the primary social base for a communist movement. At the same time, the limited engagement with the peasantry remained a weakness that would later constrain the movement’s broader influence.

The appeal of the Bolshevik Revolution resonated widely across Indian society, including among sections of the intelligentsia and the propertied classes. However, its political and ideological content was most systematically taken up by Marxists, who sought to translate its lessons into the Indian context through the creation of an organised party of the working class.

The unification of these disparate groups culminated in the Kanpur Conference of December 1925, which is regarded as the founding moment of the CPI. The organisation of this conference was initiated by Satyabhakt, a former revolutionary nationalist who had turned towards communism after the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement. Satyabhakt envisaged an open and explicitly Indian communist party, distinct from the Communist International, believing this would shield it from colonial repression. Although existing communist groups did not endorse his approach, they supported the idea of convening an all-India conference, and delegates from various regions participated.

The conference reportedly drew several hundred delegates. It adopted resolutions, approved a constitution, and elected a Central Executive Committee. A significant disagreement arose over the party’s name and international alignment. While the majority favoured the name “Communist Party of India” and alignment with international communism, Satyabhakt dissented and subsequently left to form a separate organisation. In the aftermath, Indian communists abroad, including M.N. Roy, recognised the Kanpur leadership as a basis for further work and urged formal affiliation with the Communist International, unity with the broader nationalist movement, and preparedness for repression.

During the anti-colonial struggle, the CPI played an important role in organising workers and peasants and in building class and mass organisations such as the All India Trade Union Congress, the All India Kisan Sabha, and the All India Students’ Federation. Leaders like S.A. Dange and P.C. Joshi contributed to expanding the party’s influence among sections of the working population. While the CPI did not emerge as the dominant force within the freedom movement, its ideological influence extended beyond its numerical strength, shaping debates on class, nationalism, and social justice. Revolutionary figures such as Bhagat Singh engaged deeply with socialist and communist ideas, reflecting the broader impact of Marxist thought during this period.

The party’s trajectory during the 1940s was marked by intense internal debates over strategy, including its stance during the Second World War and the Quit India Movement. By the mid-1940s, the CPI faced criticism for political isolation from sections of the mass movement. The Telangana armed struggle (1946–51) became one of the most significant episodes in the party’s history, involving large-scale peasant mobilisation against feudal oppression. While the struggle demonstrated the capacity for militant mass action, it also exposed strategic and organisational divisions within the party leadership.

At the Second Party Congress in 1948, held against the backdrop of independence and partition, leadership and policy shifts took place. Subsequent years saw further debates over armed struggle versus parliamentary participation. By the early 1950s, the CPI adopted a line that emphasised electoral politics, marking a major transition in its approach.

International developments, particularly changes in the Soviet Union after 1956, also influenced debates within the CPI. Despite internal disagreements, the party achieved notable electoral success, most prominently in Kerala, where it led the first elected communist government in India. The dismissal of that government set an early precedent for the removal of opposition-led state governments.

Ideological and political differences eventually led to a split in 1964, resulting in the formation of the Communist Party of India (Marxist). This division was shaped by disagreements over relations with the Indian state, interpretations of class alliances, and international issues such as the Sino-Indian conflict. In the decades that followed, both parties pursued distinct strategies, while new revolutionary currents emerged in response to social unrest and perceived limitations of parliamentary politics.

The century-long history of the Communist Party of India thus reflects a complex interplay of ideology, mass movements, internal debate, and changing national and international contexts. Its legacy continues to influence political discourse, social movements, and debates on alternative paths of development in India.

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*Freelance journalist