Kashmir’s history: From the Treaty of Amritsar to the struggle for rights

By Raqif Makhdoomi* 

Raizada Trilok Chand, the Governor of Kashmir, ordered his forces to open fire on protesters on July 13, 1931, leaving 22 people dead. Their deaths marked the beginning of what came to be observed as Martyrs' Day in Kashmir. Every year on July 13, many Kashmiris remember those who lost their lives while resisting what they regarded as an oppressive and autocratic regime.

On July 13, 1931, thousands of Kashmiris gathered outside the Central Jail in Srinagar to witness the trial of Abdul Qadeer Khan. As the time for the obligatory Zuhr prayer approached, one man stood up to deliver the Adhan. Before he could complete it, he was shot. Another man rose to continue the call to prayer and met the same fate. One after another, 22 men lost their lives, yet the Adhan was ultimately completed. The call to prayer that took 22 lives to complete continues to resonate in the collective memory of many Kashmiris.

Abdul Qadeer Khan, whose trial led to the events of July 13, had been charged with sedition after delivering a fiery speech criticizing the oppressive rule of Maharaja Hari Singh. While much of India was struggling against British colonial rule, many Kashmiris were resisting what they saw as an unjust princely administration. For countless people, life under Maharaja Hari Singh was marked by political exclusion, economic hardship, and limited civil liberties.

Martyrs' Day should not be viewed merely as a day of resistance against the Dogra monarchy. It should also be remembered as a day when the people of Kashmir stood up for their rights, particularly their demand for dignity, justice, and meaningful political representation.

Hari Singh was the grandson of Maharaja Gulab Singh, the founder of the Dogra dynasty. Following the First Anglo-Sikh War, the British East India Company acquired Kashmir from the Sikh Empire. Under the Treaty of Amritsar of 1846, the British transferred Kashmir to Gulab Singh in return for 7.5 million Nanakshahi rupees. For many ordinary Kashmiris, this marked the beginning of an era characterized by heavy taxation, poverty, forced labour, and harsh state control. Many felt they had effectively become subjects whose welfare was secondary to the interests of the ruling establishment.

It is important not to confuse this agreement with the Treaty of Amritsar of 1809, which was a separate treaty between the British East India Company and Maharaja Ranjit Singh that established the Sutlej River as the boundary between their territories. The treaty relevant to Kashmir's transfer was the Treaty of Amritsar of 1846.

During Gulab Singh's rule, Kashmiris faced numerous hardships. Heavy taxes were imposed on agricultural produce and local industries, while the system of begar, or forced labour, became a defining feature of the administration. Punishments were often severe. Historical accounts describe instances in which rebels and prisoners were subjected to brutal corporal punishments, including mutilation. During the famine of 1865, relief efforts were widely criticized as inadequate, and many rural communities suffered immense losses. There are also historical accounts suggesting that people who attempted to catch fish to survive were punished because of a superstition associated with the late Maharaja Gulab Singh.

The exploitation of Kashmiri shawl weavers became another symbol of the hardships of the period. Many artisans worked under extremely difficult conditions, received meagre compensation, and had little control over their earnings. Land confiscations, excessive taxation, and restrictions on economic freedom deepened public resentment. To many Kashmiris, Dogra rule appeared as another form of imposed authority, much like the colonial domination experienced elsewhere in the subcontinent.

The Treaty of Amritsar of 1846 remains one of the most controversial episodes in Kashmir's history because it involved the transfer of an entire territory, along with its inhabitants, from one ruler to another in exchange for money. Although legal slavery had been abolished by the British in India in 1843, many critics have argued that the treaty treated the people of Kashmir as subjects to be transferred rather than as individuals with rights and agency.

Those who opposed Maharaja Hari Singh were not necessarily fighting against any religion or community. Their struggle was directed against what they perceived as oppressive governance and anti-people policies. During Hari Singh's reign from 1925 to 1947, many Kashmiris, particularly the Muslim-majority population, complained of political marginalization, economic exploitation, limited civil liberties, and discrimination in access to positions of power. Administrative, military, and political authority remained concentrated in the hands of the Dogra elite, reinforcing long-standing grievances.

The events of July 13, 1931, therefore, occupy an important place in Kashmir's political history. Whether viewed through the lens of civil rights, political awakening, or resistance to autocratic rule, the day symbolizes the willingness of ordinary people to stand up for what they believed were their legitimate rights.

Martyrs' Day should not become an occasion for deepening political divisions. Instead, it should serve as a reminder of the sacrifices made by those who sought justice, dignity, and greater political rights. Whatever one's political beliefs, the memory of those who lost their lives deserves to be remembered with historical seriousness and reflection. Their sacrifice continues to remind future generations that the struggle for rights and justice often demands immense courage. 

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*Law student and human rights activist