India Waits: Myrdal's historical and political reappraisal of Modern India

By Harsh Thakor* 

Originally published in 1980 and subsequently reissued, Jan Myrdal's India Waits remains one of the most discussed Marxist interpretations of modern India. The Swedish writer and political commentator examines the evolution of the Indian state and social order through a historical lens, tracing developments from ancient India through the Mughal and British periods to post-independence politics. Written from a Marxist-Leninist perspective, the book seeks to explain contemporary inequalities by locating their roots in India's historical structures of power, caste, and class.

A central argument of the book, whose Enlarged and New Edition was updated posthumously in 2021 using his notes and revisions, is that India's present social and political order cannot be understood without examining its historical evolution. Myrdal explores subjects ranging from the Mauryan Empire, the Manusmriti, Kautilya's Arthashastra, the Vedas and Upanishads, to the Mughal Empire, the East India Company, British colonial rule and the Emergency under Indira Gandhi. He argues that successive ruling systems reinforced hierarchical social relations, leaving enduring effects on independent India.

Throughout the book, Myrdal expresses concern over widespread poverty, caste oppression and unequal access to resources. His travels across rural India, particularly in Andhra Pradesh and Bihar, provide first-hand observations of agrarian conditions, bonded labour, caste discrimination and the struggles of landless peasants. These field investigations form an important component of the book, complementing its historical analysis.

The author is particularly critical of British colonial historiography. He argues that many British Orientalists interpreted Indian history through the administrative and economic interests of the East India Company, while contrasting their work with that of several continental European Indologists. He also revisits debates surrounding Indian architecture, colonial scholarship and the interpretation of India's past.

Myrdal presents an unconventional interpretation of India's independence. He contends that political independence in 1947 did not fundamentally transform existing class and social structures, arguing instead that many colonial institutions and elite interests survived the transfer of power. He examines the role of the Indian National Congress, Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru from this perspective, while also discussing the 1857 uprising, British repression and differing interpretations within the communist movement.

The book devotes considerable attention to the Indian communist movement. Myrdal evaluates the Communist Party of India, the Communist Party of India (Marxist) and later revolutionary groups, arguing that parliamentary communism gradually moved away from revolutionary politics. At the same time, he is also critical of aspects of the Naxalite movement, particularly Charu Mazumdar's "annihilation line", which he believed underestimated the importance of sustained mass mobilisation. Nevertheless, he acknowledges Mazumdar's role in shaping the Naxalbari movement.

Among the book's most distinctive sections are Myrdal's accounts of his visits to areas influenced by revolutionary groups in Andhra Pradesh and Bihar. He records interviews with activists, village organisers and armed squads, presenting their motivations, organisational methods and political objectives. While sympathetic to many of their concerns, Myrdal also notes the limitations and challenges confronting revolutionary movements in India. His work functions as both political reportage and historical documentation of an important phase in India's Left movement.

The Telangana armed struggle receives detailed treatment. Myrdal traces later agrarian movements in Andhra Pradesh to the 1946–51 Telangana uprising, describing its mobilisation of peasants against feudal landlords and examining its long-term influence on revolutionary politics in the region.

His discussion of Bihar highlights the intersection of caste and class. Drawing upon documented incidents of violence, he argues that agrarian conflicts often reflected both economic exploitation and entrenched caste hierarchies. These sections illustrate how social discrimination and struggles over land and wages shaped rural politics.

Another recurring theme is the nature of Indian feudalism. Myrdal argues that post-colonial India retained many semi-feudal economic relationships, particularly in the countryside, where landlords, moneylenders and local officials exercised considerable influence over village life. He contrasts these conditions with developments in Maoist China, a comparison consistent with his broader ideological framework.

The later edition includes reflections on Myrdal's return to India in 2010. He observes that Maoist influence had expanded into new regions but also notes increased state restrictions on access to conflict areas and greater difficulties in conducting field research compared with his earlier visits.

Although firmly grounded in Marxist analysis, India Waits is more than an ideological tract. It combines history, political commentary and travel writing, encouraging readers to reconsider accepted narratives about India's social and political development. Even readers who disagree with Myrdal's conclusions may find value in the breadth of historical material, the extensive field observations and the questions he raises about inequality, caste and state power.

The book also has limitations. Its interpretation consistently reflects a Marxist-Leninist framework, leading it to understate alternative perspectives on Indian political development. Critics may argue that it gives insufficient attention to constitutional democracy, parliamentary institutions, the positive contributions of social and religious reform movements, and the diversity of ideological currents within India's freedom struggle. Likewise, while sympathetic to revolutionary movements, it offers relatively limited critical assessment of their long-term political practice and internal contradictions.

Despite these limitations, India Waits remains an important contribution to the study of modern India. Nearly four decades after its original publication, it continues to stimulate debate on Indian history, caste, agrarian relations, colonialism and the evolution of the Indian state. Whether approached as political history, travel reportage or ideological critique, the book occupies a significant place in discussions of India's social transformation.

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Freelance journalist