A study released by the Mumbai-based Centre for Study of Society and Secularism (CSSS), supported by data from India Hate Lab, documents incidents of violence and targeting of Muslims across India in 2025. The report compiles press accounts and fact-finding material to highlight broad trends in communal conflict, mob attacks, and hate speech.
According to the CSSS, 28 communal riots were reported across the country during the year, resulting in four deaths and 360 injuries. Maharashtra accounted for seven incidents, followed by West Bengal and Gujarat with four each. Madhya Pradesh recorded three, while Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Assam, and Uttarakhand reported two cases each. Bihar and Odisha registered one each. The study estimated that Maharashtra and Gujarat together represented roughly 40 per cent of riots, eastern states 37 per cent, and northern states 25 per cent, while southern states recorded none. The report noted that nine of these riots were linked to religious processions or festival-related clashes, including episodes during Ram Navami in West Bengal and Jharkhand, Hanuman Jayanti in Madhya Pradesh, Eid in Assam, and Garba celebrations in Gujarat. Some disturbances reportedly escalated after protests relating to the Waqf Amendment Act.
Mob violence against Muslims formed another category of documented harm. Fourteen incidents of lynching were reported during 2025, leading to eight recorded deaths. These events were often associated with allegations of cattle-related offences, suspicions of illegal immigration, and claims of “love jihad”, with some incidents reportedly involving forced religious slogans. Among the cases cited were the killing of migrant worker Juel Sheikh in Sambalpur, Odisha; multiple lynching incidents in Bihar's Nawada district; deaths linked to cattle theft accusations in Jharkhand; killings reported in Maharashtra, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh; an attack on a Muslim migrant in Kerala; and a case involving a student subjected to slurs in Dehradun, Tripura-origin communities being mentioned in media reports. The CSSS study also referenced deaths in Jammu and Kashmir associated with security operations after an attack in Pahalgam, while noting the need for further verification of circumstances.
A separate analysis by India Hate Lab recorded 1,318 hate speech incidents in 2025, of which the organisation stated 98 per cent specifically targeted Muslims. These instances reportedly occurred at public rallies, religious gatherings, street-level events, and across social media platforms. Human rights workers quoted in the study argued that such rhetoric had become routine, creating an atmosphere of insecurity for Muslim communities despite constitutional guarantees of equal protection under the law.
The CSSS findings raised concerns regarding the response of state institutions. The organisation argued that policing and prosecution outcomes appeared uneven across states, with more rapid or assertive action being taken in cases involving Hindu victims. It further asserted that state administrations in some cases intervened on behalf of Hindu groups, while members of Muslim communities faced disproportionate arrests or police action. The report stated that post-riot narratives promoted by authorities and sections of the media tended to attribute responsibility to Muslims, sometimes referring to alleged “masterminds” without publicly available evidence.
The study concluded that patterns of violence in 2025 extended beyond physical attacks. It highlighted what it described as heightened public assertion of majoritarian cultural identity through religious symbols and festivals, accompanied by marginalisation of Muslim cultural expression. According to CSSS, the cumulative effect included an increase in impunity for vigilante groups and a sense of insecurity among Muslim citizens.
CSSS states that its findings are based on monitoring reports carried in national and regional newspapers including The Indian Express, The Hindu, The Times of India, Sahafat and Inquilab.
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*Journalist based in Chennai
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