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Showing posts from 2025

From degraded lands to shared prosperity: Regenerating pastures in Rajasthan

By Bharat Dogra  Frequent concern has been expressed regarding the degradation—or even the ‘vanishing’—of pastures and common grazing lands in rural communities. Yet the protection of existing pastures and the regeneration of degraded grazing land has often been neglected. This has become a silent crisis, weakening the foundation of sustainable livelihoods in many villages. Hence, any effort to prioritize pasture regeneration and improvement, while involving rural communities, is highly desirable.

Representation seeks scrapping of Sharavathi PSP, cites widespread public opposition

By A Representative   A representation submitted by power and climate policy analyst Shankar Sharma to the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) and its Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC), National Board for Wildlife (NBWL), and Forest Advisory Committee (FAC) has called for the permanent cancellation of the proposed 2,000 MW pumped storage project (PSP) in the Sharavathi Lion-Tailed Macaque (LTM) Sanctuary in Karnataka. The letter, dated December 5, 2025, has also been marked to the Union Environment Minister and the Prime Minister.

The impossible XI: A search for the ultimate all-time test cricket team

By Harsh Thakor*  Selecting the correct all-time Test Cricket XI is an almost impossible task. With no accurate parameters to compare eras—a sentiment echoed by many—the endeavor of choosing the best team of all time remains one of the most challenging in the sport. The evolution of the game makes the perfect lineup an unattainable ideal.

Global LNG boom 'threatens climate goals': Banks urged to end financing

By A Representative   The world is on the brink of an unprecedented surge in Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) development, with 279 new projects planned globally, threatening to derail international climate goals and causing severe local impacts. This stark warning comes from a coalition of organizations—including Reclaim Finance, Rainforest Action Network, BankTrack, and others—that today launched the " Exit LNG " website, a new mapping project exposing the extent of the expansion, the companies involved, and their bank financiers.

Government, IndiGo accused of negligence amid nationwide flight chaos

By A Representative   The All India Committee of the Centre for the Protection of Democratic Rights and Secularism (CPDRS) has strongly criticised the Central Government and IndiGo Airlines management, alleging systemic negligence that has triggered a nationwide air travel crisis with hundreds of flight cancellations and delays.

Ahmedabad's Sabarmati riverfront under scrutiny after Subhash Bridge damage

By Rosamma Thomas*  Large cracks have appeared on Subhash Bridge across the Sabarmati in Ahmedabad, close to the Gandhi Ashram . Built in 1973, this bridge, named after Subhash Chandra Bose , connects the eastern and western parts of the city and is located close to major commercial areas. The four-lane bridge has sidewalks for pedestrians, and is vital for access to Ashram Road , Ellis Bridge , Gandhinagar and the Sabarmati Railway Station .

Strengthening DISHA: Field realities that demand a governance reset

By Dr Vikas Singh, Dr Vina Singh  At the heart of India’s development governance lies a simple yet powerful proposition: schemes designed in New Delhi deliver meaningful impact only when implemented effectively at the district level. The District Development Coordination and Monitoring Committee (DISHA), chaired by Members of Parliament and convened quarterly by District Collectors, was conceived as the institutional bridge linking national development priorities with local delivery systems.

Udaipur labour rights group helps workers win dues, seeks to prevent distress migration

By Bharat Dogra   Recently, a group of five tribal community members travelled in a desperate condition to Udaipur city. Devilal, Narayan, Lakshman, Dharmi, and Sushila—three men and two women workers—were facing serious economic difficulties in their families and urgently needed some income. As many workers in such situations do, they gathered at the labour hiring point (naka) at Govardhan Vilas Chowkhti in Udaipur, hoping to be hired by an employer or contractor for construction or related work. Although tired and underfed, they initially felt fortunate when a contractor arrived quickly and said he had enough work for them for several days. However, after making a small advance payment, the contractor withheld the bulk of their wages. He first promised to pay soon, but then stopped responding to their phone calls. Their hopes were shattered, and they were at their wits’ end about how to recover their hard-earned and badly needed money. At this stage, another worker to...

No action yet on complaint over assault on lawyer during Tirunelveli public hearing

By A Representative   A day after a detailed complaint was filed seeking disciplinary action against ten lawyers in Tirunelveli for allegedly assaulting human rights lawyer Dr. V. Suresh, no action has yet been taken by the Bar Council of Tamil Nadu and Puducherry, according to the People’s Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL).

Myanmar prepares for elections widely seen as a junta-controlled exercise

By Nava Thakuria*  Trouble-torn Myanmar (also known as Burma or Brahmadesh) is preparing for three-phase national elections starting on 28 December 2025, with results expected in January 2026. Several political parties—primarily proxies of the Burmese military junta—are participating, while Aung San Suu Kyi’s National League for Democracy (NLD) remains banned. Observers expect a one-sided contest where junta-backed candidates are likely to dominate.

Strategic balance, not alignment: Why the west misreads india’s relationship with Russia

By Vidya Bhushan Rawat*   The visuals of Russian President Vladimir Putin in India have drawn considerable global attention. In parts of Europe and the wider Western world, the visit has been met with mixed reactions ranging from curiosity to disappointment. Some Ukrainian groups and Western commentators expressed strong criticism of India, reflecting limited understanding of India’s historical relationship with Russia and its foreign policy traditions.

Expressionist rebel who became Soviet socialist realist but never joined the party

By Harsh Thakor*  Yuri Ivanovich Pimenov (November 26, 1903 – September 6, 1977) was a prominent Soviet painter, graphic artist, theatre designer, and illustrator, recognized as one of the major figures associated with Socialist Realism, the officially sanctioned artistic style in the USSR from the 1930s onward.

Ayodhya to Article 370: Apex Court a partner in majoritarian project? Global study thinks so

By Rajiv Shah   In what might be interpreted as a move to globalise the contentious issue of India's judicial independence, new academic study published in a research journal associated with the Heidelberg University, Germany , "Indian Politics & Policy", delivers a devastating verdict on the Supreme Court of India ’s performance during Narendra Modi ’s tenure from 2014 to 2025. 

Madhya Pradesh power purchase pact to deepen economic burden on citizens

By Raj Kumar Sinha*  The Madhya Pradesh government is preparing to sign a 25-year power-purchase agreement (PPA) with private companies for 4,000 MW of electricity at the rate of ₹5.83 per unit. The proposal has been sent to the Madhya Pradesh Electricity Regulatory Commission for final approval. Experts warn that if the proposed rate is cleared, the state will end up paying more than ₹1 lakh crore in additional expenditure over the contract period—an amount that will ultimately be borne by consumers.

Debate on capital punishment rekindled on 50th anniversary of 1975 Telangana execution

By Harsh Thakor*  Kosuganti Bhumayya and Gunnala Kishtagoud, associated with the first generation of the Naxalbari movement, were executed by hanging in Mushirabad Jail, Secunderabad, on December 1, 1975. The 50th anniversary of their execution has prompted renewed discussion among writers, activists, and civil liberties groups about the case, its legal handling, and the broader debate on capital punishment in India.

HC asks Centre, State to explain delay in ESIC coverage for Kutch workers

By A Representative   The Gujarat High Court has sought responses from the Centre, the state government and the Employees State Insurance Corporation (ESIC) on a public interest litigation demanding extension of benefits under the Employees’ State Insurance Act, 1948, to workers in the Kutch district. The division bench of Chief Justice Sunita Agarwal and Justice D.N. Ray issued directions on November 21 and posted the matter for further hearing on December 12 .

Feminist alliance backs global campaign for fisherwomen’s rights

By A Representative   The All-India Feminist Alliance (ALIFA) under the National Alliance of People’s Movements (NAPM) has expressed strong solidarity with the ongoing struggles of fisherwomen across India and globally, as part of a five-week international campaign that began on November 5 and concludes on December 10. The campaign, led globally by the World Forum of Fisher Peoples (WFFP) and endorsed in India by the National Forum of Fishworkers (NFF), coincides with the first International Fisherwomen’s Day, observed a year after the India Fisherwomen’s Assembly held in November 2024 in Thiruvananthapuram.

NGO plans campaign against child marriage in 17 high-prevalence Gujarat districts

By A Representative   A nationwide initiative led by the civil society network Just Rights for Children (JRC) has launched an intensive drive aimed at making one lakh villages across India child marriage free within the next year. As part of this effort, villages across 17 districts in Gujarat identified as high-prevalence areas under the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5, 2019–21) have been selected for focused intervention.

From crime to verdict: The 27-year journey that 'rewarded' the destroyers of Babri Masjid

By Shamsul Islam    Thirty-three years ago, on December 6, 1992, a 16th-century mosque was reduced to rubble by a frenzied mob orchestrated by the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and its political fronts. The demolition was not a spontaneous outburst of Hindu sentiment; it was the meticulously planned culmination of a hate campaign that branded Indian Muslims as “Babur-ki-aulad” and the Babri Masjid as a symbol of historical humiliation. 

My Life is my message: The unfinished mission of Babasaheb Ambedkar

By Kantilal Parmar*  So long as inequality, caste discrimination, atrocities on the poor, and exploitation persist, the name of Babasaheb Ambedkar will remain immortal. Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar was born on April 14, 1891, at the Mhow military cantonment in present-day Madhya Pradesh. His father’s name was Ramji Maloji Sakpal and his mother’s name was Bhimabai. He was the fourteenth child in the family. Their ancestral village was Ambavade in the Ratnagiri district of the Konkan region in Maharashtra. Born into the Mahar community — considered “untouchable” — his family followed the Kabir Panth. Affectionately he was called Bhima.

Differences in 2002 and 2025 SIR revision procedures spark alarm in Gujarat

By A Representative   Civil rights groups and electoral reform activists have raised serious concerns over the ongoing Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in Gujarat and 11 other states, alleging that the newly enforced requirements could lead to large-scale deletion of legitimate voters, particularly those unable to furnish documentation linking them to the 2002 electoral list.

Caste, patriarchy, and the murder of choice: Ambedkar’s dream vs. India’s reality

By Vidya Bhushan Rawat*     The murder of Saksham Tete , a Dalit described as a ‘ jaibhim wallah ’ by the family of his girlfriend Anchal Mamidwar in Nanded, should not surprise anyone. The bitter and brutal fact is that we are a highly caste-conscious society, and anyone venturing beyond caste boundaries must be prepared for the repercussions that Saksham faced. There is not one single caste, region, or identity to be blamed for this. The reality is that we are all proud of our castes, and anyone who crosses the red line becomes unwanted and unaccepted.  

Latur’s quiet rebel: Dr Suryanarayan Ransubhe and his war on Manuvad

By Ravi Ranjan*  In an India still fractured by caste, religion, and language, where narrow loyalties repeatedly threaten to tear the nation apart, Rammanohar Lohia once observed that the true leader of the bahujans is one under whose banner even non-bahujans feel proud to march. The remark applies far beyond politics. In the literary-cultural and social spheres as well, only a person armed with unflinching historical consciousness and the moral courage to refuse every form of personality worship—including worship of oneself—can hope to touch the weak pulse of the age and speak its bitter truths without fear or favour. 

South Rajasthan’s community efforts break the silence around elderly distress in rural areas

By Bharat Dogra   Mahatma Gandhi once said that one of the most important tests of a society is how it cares for its elderly. In many parts of India, particularly in villages facing poverty and outmigration, this test is increasingly being failed in the lives of the most vulnerable older people whose needs remain invisible and unmet. Recent visits to several villages in the tribal belts of South Rajasthan reveal painful stories of neglect but also inspiring examples of collective effort and hope shaped by a wellness-based model of elderly care emerging through the Prabal Yatra (PY) initiative of ARTH, a voluntary organisation working in the region.

Farewell to Robin Smith, England’s Lionhearted Warrior Against Pace

By Harsh Thakor*  Robin Smith, who has died at the age of 62, was among the most adept and convincing players of fast bowling during an era when English cricket was in decline and pace bowling was at its most lethal. Unwavering against the tormenting West Indies pace attack or the relentless Australians, Smith epitomised courage and stroke-making prowess. His trademark shot, an immensely powerful square cut, made him a scourge of opponents. Wearing a blue England helmet without a visor or grille, he relished pulling, hooking and cutting the quicks. 

Neighbour’s aid to Muslim journalist 'challenges' divisive politics in Jammu

By Sandeep Pandey, Shahnawaz Mir  The Bharatiya Janata Party considers itself nationalist, and Narendra Modi has built a tall statue of Sardar Patel near the Sardar Sarovar Dam in Gujarat , known as the Statue of Unity . However, the politics of the BJP heavily revolves around Hindu–Muslim polarisation. The latest incident in this regard is extremely shameful.

Digital emergency? Sanchaar Saathi triggers fear of state control

By A Representative   The Union government has faced sharp criticism  following allegations that its newly announced mobile application Sanchaar Saathi could enable large-scale surveillance of Indian citizens. The controversy grew even as journalist Bhasha Singh , in a widely circulated video statement, accused the Centre of forcing all mobile manufacturers to pre-install the app and preventing users from deleting it.

'Focus on domestic ecological challenges': India's leadership role claim at COP30 questioned

By A Representative  A detailed representation addressed to Union Environment Ministers Bhupender Yadav and Kirti Vardhan Singh has urged the Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEF&CC) to undertake a serious reassessment of India’s environmental governance in the context of accelerating climate impacts , continuing diversion of forests and increasing ecological stress. The letter, written by Power and Climate Policy Analyst Shankar Sharma from Sagara, Karnataka , has also been marked to the Prime Minister.

Women’s leadership and community effort 'transform' Rajasthan's Jamun village

By Bharat Dogra  Although more than four decades have passed, several elderly residents of Jamun village still vividly remember the inspirational early days when the voluntary organization Seva Mandir came to this remote tribal community—then marked by high levels of illiteracy—with an adult literacy programme.

From darkness to dignity: Project Chirag brings solar power to villages

By A Representative   Aahwahan Foundation, a non-profit organization dedicated to environmental protection and rural development in India, is transforming lives through its Solar Village Project, known as Chirag. Led by CEO and Founder Braja Kishore Pradhan, the Foundation has been working to bring clean, solar-powered electricity to underserved communities across the country, offering a sustainable alternative to unsafe kerosene lamps and the darkness that has long defined rural nights.

Rajaji: The forgotten champion of free enterprise in India

By N.S. Venkataraman*  Ever since independence, India has honoured its national leaders and freedom fighters on their birth anniversaries, particularly Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru . Continuing this tradition, since 2014 Prime Minister Narendra Modi has regularly highlighted the contributions of figures such as Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose . While these leaders rightly receive recognition, many others who made significant sacrifices for the nation remain relatively less acknowledged. Among them is C. Rajagopalachari —popularly known as Rajaji .

Short films celebrated at CNFF-25 closing ceremony in Guwahati

By Nava Thakuria*  The curtains came down on the 9th Chalachitram National Film Festival ( CNFF-25 ) at the Jyoti Chitraban premises in Kahilipara, Guwahati , on 30 November 2025, where awards, certificates and cash prizes were presented to winning filmmakers in the presence of eminent film personalities, emerging director-producers and enthusiastic cine-goers. Organized by Chalachitram, a subsidiary of Vishwa Samvad Kendra–Assam , the two-day festival showcased over 30 short features and documentaries under competitive and non-competitive sections.

Remembering a remarkable rebel: Personal recollections of Comrade Himmat Shah

By Rajiv Shah   I first came in contact with Himmat Shah in the second half of the 1970s during one of my routine visits to Ahmedabad , my maternal hometown. I do not recall the exact year, but at that time I was working in Delhi with the CPI -owned People’s Publishing House (PPH) as its assistant editor, editing books and writing occasional articles for small periodicals. Himmatbhai — as I would call him — worked at the People’s Book House (PBH), the CPI’s bookshop on Relief Road in Ahmedabad.

From Periyar to Veeramani: The uncompromising voice of social justice in Tamil Nadu

By Vidya Bhushan Rawat*  It has been a great privilege to have interviewed Dr K Veeramani several times and to have listened to his impassioned lectures on social justice and humanism . As he turned 93 on December 2, I congratulated him for persistently following the path shown by Thanthai Periyar . Without his deep-rooted involvement in the movement started by the legendary Periyar, we would not have witnessed anything credible. 

Exposing caste, class, and faith in pandemic India: Homebound’s path to the Oscars

By Vikas Meshram   The COVID-19 pandemic collapsed systems across the world, but its deepest wounds were carved into the lives of India’s migrant workers . Governance halted, transportation stopped, employment vanished—yet life did not stop. Thousands set out on foot, driven by fear of an uncertain tomorrow, the hope of reuniting with their families, and the gnawing pain of hunger. Many stories were born on these long roads—some highlighted, many forgotten. But the story of two friends from Uttar Pradesh’s Basti district became a mirror reflecting humanity, friendship, and harsh social realities back to the world.

Delwara, where unity and equality open doors to inclusive development

By Bharat Dogra  Delwara, a peri-urban village (qasba) about 30 km from Udaipur in Rajasthan, has drawn attention for a wide range of development achievements—water conservation, women’s livelihood initiatives, and heritage protection among them. While each of these is impressive, perhaps even more inspiring is the path taken and the social processes initiated to strengthen unity and cooperation based on non-discrimination. These created conditions in which all residents, including the weakest sections, could contribute in creative and meaningful ways, helping realize the often hidden potential of ordinary people.

Muslim women’s rights advocates demand criminalisation of polygamy: Petition launched

By A Representative   An online petition seeking a legal ban on polygamy has been floated by Javed Anand, co-editor of Sabrang and National Convener of Indian Muslims for Secular Democracy (IMSD), inviting endorsements from citizens, organisations and activists. The petition, titled “Indian Muslims & Secular Progressive Citizens Demand a Legal Ban on Polygamy,” urges the Central and State governments, Parliament and political parties to abolish polygamy through statutory reform, backed by extensive data from the 2025 national study conducted by the Bharatiya Muslim Mahila Andolan (BMMA).

Revisiting the debate on polygamy, gender equality and women’s rights

By N.S. Venkataraman*  While the world, particularly in the last few decades, has achieved spectacular growth in scientific advancement, technological practices, and management techniques, it still appears that the basic mindset of some sections of society remains unchanged at an unacceptable level. Although there is no dearth of men with progressive views about women — who fully recognize that men are in no way superior to women when viewed holistically — there are still some who continue to believe in the so-called superiority of men.

Left publication under pressure amidst internal divisions, ideological directions

By Harsh Thakor*   Nazariya magazine, which identifies with Marxism–Leninism–Maoism, has continued publication despite facing significant legal and administrative pressure. The magazine and several individuals associated with it have reported being subjected to investigation and questioning by law enforcement agencies. According to available reports, nine activists linked to the publication were detained by authorities in July, reportedly without formal warrants. The magazine states that some of its members were compelled to go underground, resulting in organisational difficulties and delays in publication.

Community-based efforts in rural Rajasthan to assist elders facing severe distress

By Bharat Dogra   Bheru Singh, an 80-year-old farmer from Bagruda village in Udaipur district, Rajasthan, and his wife Tulsi Bai, 78, continue to work daily on their small farm and care for their animals. Despite remaining active in old age, their work demands significant physical effort, often beyond their capacity, particularly as their nutritional levels are frequently inadequate.

Karnataka govt warned: Don't pass domestic workers Bill without consulting workers

By A Representative   The National Alliance of People’s Movements (NAPM) and members of the All-India Workers Forum have submitted preliminary comments to the Karnataka Labour Department on the Draft Karnataka Domestic Workers (Social Security and Welfare) Bill, 2025, urging the government to strengthen rights-based provisions and ensure wider public consultation. The submission was made on November 15 in response to the state’s call for public comments on the draft law.

Is affordable housing losing ground? Tier-2 data shows growing divide

By A Representative    The latest PropEquity report on housing activity in India’s top 15 tier-2 cities reveals a deeper shift underway in the country’s real estate landscape. While overall housing sales volumes declined 4% year-on-year in the July–September quarter of 2025, the total sales value rose 4%, signalling a decisive movement toward premium and high-value homes rather than the mass-market affordable housing that traditionally drives demand in these regions. This trend reflects a growing divide between elite housing buyers and the middle-class population, whose purchasing power is increasingly strained.

NCR leads 72% rise in luxury property rates as mid-income buyers get left behind

By A Representative   The price of luxury homes has risen sharply across India’s top seven cities, far outpacing the growth seen in affordable and mid-income housing. According to new data released by Anarock—one of India’s leading independent real estate consultancy firms offering research, advisory, brokerage, and capital markets services—luxury properties priced at ₹1 crore and above have appreciated by 40% since 2022, while prices in the affordable category (under ₹40 lakh) have increased by only 26%. Mid-income and premium homes recorded growth of 39% during the same period—reinforcing concerns that the housing market is increasingly shifting towards high-end buyers rather than the middle class.

India's chemical industry: The missing piece of Atmanirbhar Bharat

By N.S. Venkataraman*  Rarely a day passes without the Prime Minister or a cabinet minister speaking about the importance of Atmanirbhar Bharat . The Start-up India scheme is a pillar in promoting this vision, and considerable enthusiasm has been reported in promoting start-up projects across the country. While these developments are positive, Atmanirbhar Bharat does not seem to have made significant progress within the Indian chemical industry . This is a matter of high concern that needs urgent and dispassionate analysis.

Kanchan Kumar, long-time participant in Left political cultural movements, passes away

By Harsh Thakor*  Cultural activist and translator Kanchan Kumar passed away at 12 noon on November 29 at the age of 90. Kumar was known for translating political and revolutionary literature into Bengali from languages including Telugu, Tamil and Punjabi. He was active in literary and cultural movements associated with left ideological streams in India.

Jeremy Seabrook’s India connections: Remembering a gentle and courageous voice

By Bharat Dogra   Jeremy Seabrook received wide appreciation and acclaim internationally for his hundreds of articles and reports, as well as nearly 40 books written largely from a perspective of social justice . His reporting from many countries on the victims of multifaceted injustice has been read and re-read for its deeply sympathetic yet realistic portrayal of people placed — or pushed — into very difficult circumstances. India was one of the countries from which he reported extensively.

From monsoon uncertainty to solar self-reliance: Manglibai’s inspiring journey

By Vikas Meshram   The story of 42-year-old Manglibai Hakra Garasia, a resident of Jumki village in Sajjangarh tehsil of Banswara district, Rajasthan, is an inspiring example of how renewable energy and effective use of government schemes can transform the economic future of a tribal family. As a tribal woman farmer, Manglibai has not only secured her family’s livelihood but has also emerged as a role model for other women in her region.

Politics of blaming Macaulay: Why Hindutva wants to rewrite the story of education

By Ram Puniyani*  While delivering the Ramnath Goenka Lecture, Prime Minister Narendra Modi stated that India should take a ten-year pledge to root out the colonial mindset. In ten years, he noted, it will be 200 years since Lord Macaulay introduced the English-based education system. According to Modi, Macaulay’s project aimed to reshape Indian thought by dismantling indigenous knowledge systems and enforcing colonial education. He went on to argue that Macaulay’s “crime” was creating Indians who were “Indian in appearance but British in thought.” This, Modi claimed, destroyed India’s self-confidence and introduced a sense of inferiority.

Rising footfall, rising risks: SDC seeks urgent reforms in Char Dham Yatra management

By A Representative   Social Development for Communities (SDC) Foundation , a Dehradun -based public-interest organization working on climate change , sustainable development and environmental issues in Uttarakhand , has released its preliminary Factsheet on Char Dham Yatra 2025 . The document compiles data on pilgrimage days, footfall distribution, peak footfall dates and zero-pilgrim days across the five major pilgrimage sites— Kedarnath , Badrinath , Gangotri , Yamunotri and Hemkund Sahib —for the recently concluded Char Dham Yatra 2025. The Foundation announced preliminary results in a fact sheet ahead of a comprehensive Char Dham Yatra 2025 report saying, long-term planning, collaborative governance and sustained stakeholder engagement are essential to ensure that the Char Dham Yatra remains spiritually meaningful and environmentally secure. Presenting the factsheet, Anoop Nautiyal , Founder of SDC Foundation, noted that the 2025 Yatra recorded 51,06,346 pilgrims, compared ...

Periyar and the Self-respect Movement: A hundred years of anti-caste struggle

By S.V. Rajadurai*  The year 2025 marks the centenary of the Self-Respect Movement founded by Periyar E.V. Ramasami . The term self-respect encapsulates the core ideals of the movement: abolition of distinctions between Paraya and Brahmin , rich and poor, and men and women—distinctions upheld by the hierarchical caste order with Brahminism as its ideological foundation. Though the movement was centred in the Tamil-speaking areas of the Madras Presidency and Pondicherry, it reached the oppressed masses in Dharavi and Pune, the Travancore princely state, and the migrant Tamil communities in Malaya, Singapore, Ceylon and Burma.