Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb: Akbar to Shivaji -- the cross-cultural alliances that built India

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By Ram Puniyani 

​What is Indian culture? Is it purely Hindu, or a blend of many influences? Today, Hindu right-wing advocates of Hindutva claim that Indian culture is synonymous with Hindu culture, which supposedly resisted "Muslim invaders" for centuries. This debate resurfaced recently in Kolkata at a seminar titled "The Need to Protect Hinduism from Hindutva."

Hindutva thinkers argue that the concept of "Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb"—the syncretic culture of India—is a "strange creature" invented by Jawaharlal Nehru and Marxist historians to distort history. They claim this narrative only gained traction between 1916 and 1923.

​But what exactly is Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb? Broadly, it refers to the composite culture developed over a millennium of Hindus and Muslims living together. Following Islam's arrival in the 7th century, both faiths began influencing one another. During the medieval period, Sultanate and Mughal rulers prioritized power and wealth over the destruction of local culture. This led to the birth of syncretic traditions that still thrive across India.

​This "fusion" began primarily in North India near the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, giving the movement its name. While independence leaders celebrated it, Hindu and Muslim nationalists—who remained largely indifferent to the anti-colonial struggle—resented this intermingling. Yet, this interaction flourished in every sphere of social life.

​Scholar B.N. Pande summarized it beautifully: "Islam and Hinduism... eventually blended. From their union emerged the religions of love and loyalty—Bhakti and Tasawwuf (Sufism)." These movements became a vast river that rejuvenated the country, manifesting in art, literature, painting, and music.

​In music, forms like Khayal, Ghazal, and Thumri are direct results of this interaction. North Indian classical music, as we know it, is a 500-year-old product of Hindu and Muslim elements. Ibrahim Adil Shah II of Bijapur (1580–1626) had 300 Hindu singers in his court and wrote Kitab-e-Navras in Urdu, which begins with a prayer to Goddess Saraswati. Similarly, Muslim poets like Rahim and Raskhan became legendary for their Brijbhasha verses praising Lord Krishna, while many Hindus enriched Urdu literature and administration.

​Architecture also saw a marriage of styles. The intricate carvings of Muslim tradition met Hindu structural forms to create masterpieces like Jodha Bai’s palace in Agra and the havelis of Rajasthan. In the social sphere, festivals were shared: Diwali was celebrated as Jashn-e-Chiraghan and Holi as Jashn-e-Gulabi. Even Tipu Sultan patronized the ten-day Dasara festival in Mysore.

​These traditions endure. Researcher Irfan Engineer recently noted that during the Warkari pilgrimage, Muslim communities often pause their own festivities to share food with the pilgrims. History also shows political cross-pollination: 33% of Aurangzeb’s officials were Hindu (including Raja Jai Singh), while Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj employed many Muslim military officers.

​Jawaharlal Nehru described this in The Discovery of India, likening India to an ancient palimpsest where new layers of culture were written over old ones without erasing them. This "unity in diversity" was the bedrock upon which he sought to build a modern, democratic nation.

​Today, as hate-driven violence is fanned to promote communal nationalism, upholding the values of Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb is more than a historical exercise—it is a necessity for our survival as a cohesive society.

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​Ram Puniyani taught at IIT Bombay and is the President of the Center for Study of Society and Secularism