The people’s guardians: How mass movements shaped India's environmental ethos

By Mahesh Pandya* 

The month of August is often hailed as the month of revolution. During India's freedom struggle, Mahatma Gandhi bequeathed two enduring symbols to the nation: the broom and the spinning wheel. While the charkha (spinning wheel) came to represent self-reliance and economic empowerment, the broom was a potent emblem of sanitation and environmental conservation. 

This was a profound example of a people's movement, where the fight for freedom was seamlessly intertwined with a lesson in the judicious and respectful use of natural resources. Gandhi's own practices—bathing with a single bucket of water on the banks of the Sabarmati River and performing his ablutions with just a small lota of water—were not mere acts of personal austerity but a powerful environmental statement, establishing a precedent for mindful living.

Environmental movements are a distinct form of social activism, bringing together individuals, groups, and organizations united by a common interest in protecting the environment. They work to influence environmental policies and practices, serving as critical examples of collective action by various social groups.

The rapid pace of industrial development, the depletion of natural resources, and the escalating frequency of natural disasters have created a profound imbalance in our ecological systems. This discord is increasingly manifesting in conflicts between humans and wildlife. Predators like lions are turning man-eaters, while herbivores such as the nilgai, their natural habitats encroached upon, are causing widespread damage to standing crops. Such crises give rise to environmental movements. Key drivers of these movements include the monopolization of natural resources by a few, inequitable development policies that erode social justice and human rights, and the consequent environmental degradation. To truly understand this phenomenon, it is essential to look at some of India’s most memorable and exemplary environmental struggles.

Since the 1970s, India has witnessed a surge in environmental movements. These have emerged as independent, organic responses to local issues, arising at different times and places across the nation.

The Bishnoi Movement (1730): A Sacrifice for Sacred Trees

In 1730, led by the indomitable Amrita Devi, an estimated 363 members of the Bishnoi community sacrificed their lives to protect their sacred forests. The Bishnoi community, known for its 29 principles that emphasize the conservation of trees, wildlife, and the environment, were faced with a devastating order from Maharaja Abhay Singh of Rajasthan. The king demanded the felling of Khejri trees to procure wood for the construction of a new palace and for lime production.

In a spontaneous act of defiance that would become a blueprint for future environmental protests, the villagers hugged the trees to prevent the woodcutters from felling them. This act of embracing the trees—a strategy that would later be famously echoed in the Chipko movement—cost them their lives. The massacre deeply shocked the ruler. Maharaja Abhay Singh immediately revoked his order and, by a royal decree, banned the cutting of trees and hunting of animals in Bishnoi villages. This movement, an extraordinary example of non-violent resistance, stands as a timeless symbol of environmental protection and a direct inspiration for later movements.

The Chipko Movement (1973): Embracing the Trees

Born on April 24, 1973, in the Mandal village of Chamoli district in Uttarakhand's Garhwal region, the Chipko movement is one of India’s most globally renowned environmental campaigns. It was a reflection of the Bishnoi movement's core philosophy, adapted to the contemporary challenges of the Himalayas. The movement was sparked by the need to protect the Himalayan forests from large-scale commercial logging.

The underlying cause was profound: environmental imbalance was threatening the mountain ecosystem. A decline in forest produce was forcing hill residents to become increasingly dependent on the market, a source of great anxiety. Moreover, the relentless exploitation of forest resources was being held responsible for devastating natural calamities like floods and landslides. It was on March 27th that the decision was made to 'chipko' (hug) the trees at risk of being felled. This simple yet powerful act of non-cooperation proved decisive in halting the logging by private companies and forcing them to leave the area. The success of the movement was driven by the support of local communities, particularly the women, and its leadership was championed by visionary environmentalists like Sunderlal Bahuguna and Chandi Prasad Bhatt.

The Silent Valley Movement (1978): Saving a Biodiversity Haven

Nestled in the Palakkad district of Kerala, the Silent Valley is a pristine tropical rainforest surrounded by hills. The idea of constructing a hydroelectric dam on the Kuntipuzha River, which flows through the valley, was first conceived by the British in 1929. The project was technically surveyed in 1958 and eventually approved by India's Planning Commission in 1973.

However, by 1978, a groundswell of opposition emerged from various sections of the local population. What started as a local protest was soon taken up by the Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP), a prominent people's science movement. The campaign's objective was clear: to save the Silent Valley and its rich biodiversity from the proposed dam. The movement quickly gained national and international support, uniting a coalition of environmental groups including the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) and the Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA), alongside the local action forum. The relentless campaign successfully pressured the government to abandon the project, protecting the invaluable ecological treasure that is the Silent Valley.

The Appiko Movement (1983): A Southern Echo

Inspired by the Chipko movement, the 'Appiko' (meaning "to embrace") movement was launched by villagers in the Western Ghats. In the Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka, villagers initiated the 'Appiko Chaluvali' between September and November 1983. The movement arose from the rampant commercial logging that was devastating the forests and leading to severe ecological consequences like soil erosion and the drying up of perennial streams.

The immediate cause was the decision by the forest department to prevent local residents from collecting firewood, fodder, and non-timber forest products like honey, denying them their traditional rights. In September 1983, the women and youth of the region decided to launch a campaign reminiscent of the Chipko movement. Under the leadership of Pandurang Hegde, the villagers, especially women from Salkani and surrounding villages, actively protested. The Appiko movement lasted 38 days and was a resounding success, forcing the state government to accept their demands and withdraw the logging orders.

The Jungle Bachao Andolan (1980s): Defending Tribal Rights and Forests

This movement began in the Singhbhum district of Bihar (now in Jharkhand) in the 1980s. It was a direct challenge to the government's decision to replace natural Sal forests with commercial teak plantations. This policy most severely affected the Adivasi (tribal) communities, threatening their rights, traditions, and livelihoods which were intrinsically linked to the native forests. The movement gained significant momentum in 1982 and spread across Bihar, Jharkhand, and Odisha in various forms, representing a powerful assertion of forest rights and a defense of community-based resource management.

The Narmada Bachao Andolan (1985): A Fight for Justice

Led by the charismatic activist Medha Patkar, the Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) was a major people's movement that opposed the construction of large dams on the Narmada River. It brought national and international attention to the devastating environmental damage and the displacement of local communities caused by mega-dam projects. The NBA powerfully articulated the issues of environmental justice and the imperative of proper rehabilitation and resettlement (R&R) for affected people. It was a monumental struggle that questioned the very model of development in India.

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These movements have been pivotal in shaping India's environmental consciousness. They have championed the conservation of forests, wildlife, and biodiversity; prevented large-scale deforestation and degradation; and, critically, fought for the rights and livelihoods of local and indigenous communities. They have also been instrumental in promoting the ethos of sustainable development.

Their impact extends to the legal and administrative frameworks of the nation. The judiciary, through Public Interest Litigations (PILs), has often noted that without such mass movements and public awareness, even the most well-intentioned court orders are difficult to implement. The influence of these campaigns can be seen in landmark government initiatives and legislations such as:

1. The Environment (Protection) Act

2. The Forest (Conservation) Act

3. The Wildlife (Protection) Act

4. The National Green Tribunal (NGT)

5. Project Tiger

6. Project Elephant

7. The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

These people's movements have been instrumental in fostering greater public awareness and participation in environmental protection. They have not only influenced government policies and strengthened environmental laws but have also empowered citizens to become active stakeholders in protecting the nation's natural heritage—its forests, rivers, wildlife, and ecosystems—for generations to come.

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*Director, Paryavaran Mitra